As courts decide controversies (спор, ссора; разногласия, расхождение во мнениях) they create an important by-product beyond the peaceful settlement (урегулирование; соглашение) of disputes, that is, the development of rules for future cases. Law is thus made not only by legislatures but also by the courts. To an extent that varies greatly between common-law and civil-law nations, all courts apply preexisting rules formulated by legislative bodies. In the course of doing so, they interpret those rules, sometimes distorting (искажать; искривлять, изгибать; коверкать) them, sometimes transforming them from generalities to specifics, sometimes filling gaps to cover situations never considered by the original lawmakers. The judicial decisions embodying these interpretations then become controlling for future cases, sometimes to the extent of virtually supplanting (вытеснить; занять (чье-л.) место) the legislative enactments themselves. This is one aspect of the doctrine of precedent, or, as it is sometimes called stare decisis (literally, “to stand by decided matters”). Judges follow earlier decisions, not only to save themselves the effort of working out fresh solutions for the same problems each time they recur but also, and primarily, because their goal is to render uniform and stable justice. If one individual is dealt with in a certain way today, the theory is that another individual engaging in substantially identical conduct under substantially identical conditions tomorrow or a month or year hence should be dealt with in the same way. This, reduced to its essentials, is all that legislative enactment means.

Переведите и затранскибируйте нижеследущие слова/ словосочечания на английский язык, составьте с каждым из них предложения, используя времена групп Simple, Continuous, Perfect. Используйте модальные глаголы:

- to decide, - controversy, - by-product, - to apply, - preexisting rules, - to interpret, - to distort, - judicial decision, - legislative enactment, - legislative enactment

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